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Common Ground, Common Future: Moral Agency in Public
Administration, Professions, and Citizenship
, Charles
Garofalo and Dean Geuras
Available Electronically
Principles and Practices of Public Administration
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Rabin, Robert F. Munzenrider, and Sherrie M. Bartell
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Charles Garofalo
Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas, U.S.A.
Dean Geuras
Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas, U.S.A.
Common Ground,
Common Future
Moral Agency in
Public Administration,
Professions, and Citizenship
Boca Raton London New York Singapore
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
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Garofalo, Charles.
Common ground, common future : moral agency in public administration, professions, and
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
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1. Public administration Moral and ethical aspects. 2. Public administration Moral and ethical
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Preface

The aim of this book is to examine the public and private roles of the citizen as
a moral agent. We define the moral agent as a person who, rather than merely
behaving in a manner consistent with morality, recognizes morality as a motive
for action. The moral agent not only follows moral principles but also acknowl-
edges morality as his or her principal.
In developing the notion of the moral agent, we accord a special significance
to public administration. We argue that public administration is a fundamentally
moral enterprise that exists to serve values that society considers significant
enough to support. It is dedicated to the provision of goods and services that
society recognizes as important enough to justify the expenditure of our collective
resources. It is committed to the creation and cultivation of the admittedly elusive
but nonetheless central concept of the public interest. Therefore, public admin-
istration is, by definition, inherently moral, and public administrators are, again
by definition, moral agents.
We maintain that its inherently moral nature makes public administration a
plausible prototype for other professions to emulate as they pursue their own
objectives. Thus, as illustrative cases, we explore business, particularly corporate
social responsibility; the practice of medicine, especially managed care; higher
education; and the legal profession. In our view, all of these professions and
others are experiencing moral distress and confusion that can be alleviated by
recognizing public administration’s moral nature and the compelling need for
reciprocity and trust across all sectors of our society. Although moral public
administration remains a work in progress, its essential purpose can serve as a
gyroscope or centrifuge to stabilize and direct our collective moral development.
But we are not utopians, proposing the removal of politics from politics. Instead,
we are proposing that individuals and institutions acknowledge the presence and
power of universal values embodied in public administration as the central expres-
sion of moral agency and citizenship. We are proposing that public administration
become the model of moral governance in American society.
In the process, we offer the unified ethic — a combination of the major strands
of philosophical ethical theory — that we contend can help elucidate and enhance
our individual and institutional moral identities. Just as we call for a shift from
business to government as the institutional embodiment of central values, we,
once again, call for a shift from a disparate approach to moral thinking and action
to an integrated one in which principle, consequences, and character are under-
stood both in their own right and as inseparable from each other. This holistic
perspective, we believe, can provide intellectual and moral clarity and the impetus

for still another shift, this time in ethics training, away from the legalistic,
procedural, and superficial and toward reasoning and judgment, as well as toward
morally grounded decision-making skills and the exercise of discretion.
This book is intended to appeal to practitioners in various professions; to
academics responsible for research and graduate teaching in administrative,
applied, and professional ethics; and to citizens interested in clarifying the inev-
itable and insistent moral ambiguities and perplexities associated with their per-
sonal and professional lives, including their responsibilities as members of the
polity. Its title,

Common Ground, Common Future: Moral Agency in Public
Administration, Professions, and Citizenship

, signifies our principal purpose and
our abiding hope: the development of a broad perspective on our individual and
collective roles and responsibilities as citizens, professionals, and moral beings,
as well as the recognition of our mutual obligations to the large and small
challenges inherent in the processes of governance.
The initial chapter provides a general overview of the book’s central themes,
including the notion of the moral agent, moral agency in the professions and in
citizenship, and the concept of the unified ethic, which is intended to help moral
agents in making moral decisions. The second and third chapters discuss the
special status of the public administrator as a moral agent. Chapters 4–7 concern
moral agency in the important professional fields of business, medicine, law, and
higher education. Chapter 8 examines the unified ethic, while Chapter 9 applies
the unified ethic to moral agency. Chapter 10 presents a critique, from a conser-
vative and liberal perspective, of our respective positions on the public adminis-
trator as a moral exemplar. Chapter 11 concludes with a proposal for meeting the
conditions required to establish moral agency in public administration, across
professions, and in the citizenry.

Table of Contents

Preface v

Chapter 1

The Moral Agent, Moral Organization, and the Public
Administrator 1
What Is a Moral Agent? 1
The Special Ethical Aspects of Public Organizations 5
Citizenship and Public Administration 7
The Ethical Environment of Public Administration 9
The Need for Ethical Reasoning in Public Administration 10
Moral Agency, the Public Administrator, and the Private Citizen 15
References 16

Chapter 2

Moral Agency in the Public Sector 17
The Ideal Public Administrator 18
The Legislator’s Moral Agency 24
The Judiciary and Moral Agency 26
Classification of Moral Decisions in Public Administration 27
Evaluation 27
Conflicts of Obligations 28
Unclear Obligations 29
Bending and Breaking the Rules 30
Moral Whistle-Blowing 31
The Ideal and the Real 31
References 32

Chapter 3

Ethical Breakdowns in Public Administration 35
Insufficient Commitment 35
Self over Social Good 35
The Organization over Social Good 36
Organizational Goal Displacement 37
Personal Loyalties 39
Insufficient Commitment and Moral Agency 40
Excessive Commitment to Goals 40
Interorganizational Conflicts 40
Organizational Goals versus Public Values 42

Organizational Goals versus Moral Principles 42
Overcommitment and Moral Agency 43
Moral Dilemmas 43
The Public Administrator as Strong Evaluator 44
References 46

Chapter 4

Ethics in Business 49
CSR 49
Opponents of CSR 50
Proponents of CSR 52
Discussion 55
Perspectives on Government 56
Conclusion 62
References 63

Chapter 5

Managed Care 65
Origins and Structure of Managed Care 66
Moral Challenges of Managed Care 68
Alternative Perspectives on Managed Care 75
References 77

Chapter 6

The Legal Profession 79
The Client’s Interest and the Interests of Justice 80
Moral Obligations Common to the Legal Profession 83
The Legal Profession and Public Service 85
Civil Law 87
Attorneys Committed to Causes 88
Conclusion 89
References 89

Chapter 7

Higher Education 91
Ethics in the Academy: Level 1 92
Ethics in the Academy: Level 2 94
University–Government Partnerships 95
University–Business Partnerships 97
Intercollegiate Athletics 100
Conclusion 102
References 103

Chapter 8

Unifying Ethical Theory 105
Traditional Ethical Theories 105
Ethical Relativism 105
Teleological Ethical Theories 106
Deontological Ethical Theories 108
Intuitionist Theories 110
Virtue Theory 111
The Unity of the Absolutist Theories 112
Unifying Ethical Theories in the Decision-Making Process 113
The Citizenship of the Moral Agent 114
The Kantian Legislator in the Kingdom of Ends and the Moral Agent 116
The Unified Ethic, Communitarianism, and Individualism 117
Rawls and the Unified Ethic 119
References 122

Chapter 9

Applying the Unified Ethic to Moral Agency 125
The Moral Agent as Morally Responsible Citizen 125
Insufficient Commitment to Moral Values 125
Overcommitment to Specific Values 127
Conflicts among Moral Values 127
Clarification of the Role of the Moral Agent as Moral Exemplar 131
Transformation and Reconfiguration 133
Moral Agency in Business 135
Use of Foreign, Low-Wage Labor 136
Should Tobacco Companies Exist? 138
The Moral Exemplarship of the Private Executive 140
Moral Agency and the Attorney 141
Encouraging the Process of Moral Agency in the Health Professions 142
Higher Education in the Context of the Kingdom of Ends 144
References 146

Chapter 10

The Public Agent as Exemplar for the Private Professional:
A Dialogue 149
Points of Agreement 150
Geuras: The Public Administrator as Citizen Exemplar Model
Does Not Fully Apply to the Private Sector 153
Objection 1: I Have Argued That the Role of the Citizen Can
Conflict with the Role of the Private Professional 158
Reply 158
Objection 2: I Have Argued That the Responsibilities of a Citizen
to Promote the Public Interest Might Clash with One’s
Responsibilities to His or Her Own Moral Value System 158
Reply 159